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what methods of rule did europeans use to govern foreign peoples

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System of governance used by colonial powers

Indirect rule was a arrangement of governance used by the British and others to command parts of their colonial empires, specially in Africa and Asia, which was washed through pre-existing indigenous power structures. Indirect rule was used by diverse colonial rulers: the French in People's democratic republic of algeria and Tunisia, the Dutch in the E Indies, Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique and Belgians in Rwanda and Burundi. These dependencies were often called "protectorates" or "trucial states". By this organisation, the day-to-twenty-four hours authorities and assistants of areas both small and large were left in the easily of traditional rulers, who gained prestige and the stability and protection afforded by the Pax Britannica (in the case of British territories), at the price of losing control of their external affairs, and often of taxation, communications, and other matters, usually with a small number of European "advisors" effectively overseeing the government of large numbers of people spread over all-encompassing areas.[1]

British Empire [edit]

Some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London, while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised backside the scenes past British advisors. In 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of United kingdom. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position:

The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the one-half civilized races, and more suitable for them than direct rule. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more than career as public officials, and spares of unnecessary contact with white men.[2]

The Princely states of India were also ruled indirectly, with the Indian territories ruled indirectly experiencing similar effects to those in Africa which experienced indirect rule.[three] So also was much of the Due west African holdings of the British and French empires.[4]

In Africa [edit]

The ideological underpinnings, too every bit the practical application, of indirect dominion in Uganda and Nigeria is normally traced to the piece of work of Frederick Lugard, the High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1899 to 1906. Indirect rule was by no means a new idea at the fourth dimension, for it had been in employ in ruling empires throughout history. For instance, in addition to Bharat and Uganda, it had been practiced in the Songhai and Ashanti empires.

In the lands of the Sokoto Caliphate, conquered past the British at the turn of the century, Lugard instituted a system whereby external, armed services, and tax command was operated by the British, while most every other aspect of life was left to local pre-conquest indigenous aristocracies who may have sided with the British during or later their conquest. The theory behind this solution to a very practical trouble (a problem referred to every bit 'The Native Trouble' by Mahmood Mamdani in his work Citizen and Subject) of control by a tiny grouping of foreigners of huge populations is laid out in Lugard's influential work, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa. Lugard copied the numerous empires before his fourth dimension who had created and developed the indirect rule system.

According to Lugard, Indirect Dominion was a political doctrine which held that the Europeans and Africans were culturally dissimilar to this extent, Africans had to be ruled through the Africans ain institution. To accomplish this objective:

  • Chiefs and or Royalty connected to exercise their traditional powers over their subjects;
  • Chiefs were appointed for areas with no chiefs; and
  • Aspects of traditional government repugnant to "European ideas of what constituted government were modified." e.g. the abolition of human cede.

Information technology has been pointed out that the British were not prepared to pay for colonial administration, though interested in economically benefiting from their new colonies; neither attribute had the British enough resources to finance it. This economic question coupled with the shortage of or lack of European personnel in Africa at the time convinced the British that it would exist cheaper to use the traditional institutions to achieve the same objective. The nature and operation of indirect rule in Northern Nigerian, amply ostend these contentions. When Lugard and his men conquered the Sokoto Caliphate of Northern Nigeria, in early twentieth century, his limited resources in terms of men and coin, made it impracticable for him to rule the vast territory. Fortunately for him, withal, the Sokoto Caliphate already possessed a highly developed and efficient system of administration headed by emirs, with the Sultan of Sokoto as the supreme head. The hierarchical nature of the political structure was platonic for the system of indirect dominion considering the British could control the emirs and the emirs in plough could control their people.[v]

In the mid-1920s, the British implemented a system of indirect rule in Tanzania.[half-dozen]

Practical implementation [edit]

Indirect rule was cheaper and easier for the European powers and, in item, it required fewer administrators, but had a number of issues. In many cases, European authorities empowered local traditional leaders, as in the example of the monarchy of Uganda, but if no suitable leader could be found (in the traditional Western sense of the term), the Europeans would simply choose local rulers to arrange them.[seven] This was the instance in Kenya and Southern Nigeria, and the new leaders, often called "warrant chiefs", were not always supported by the local population. The European ruling classes also often chose local leaders with like traits to their ain, despite these traits not being suited to native leadership. Many were conservative elders, and thus indirect rule fostered a bourgeois outlook amid the indigenous population and marginalised the young intelligentsia. Written laws, which replaced oral laws, were less flexible to the changing social nature, onetime customs of retribution and justice were removed or banned, and the removal of more violent punishments in some areas led to an increase in offense.[ citation needed ] Furthermore, leaders empowered by the governments of European powers were oft not familiar with their new tasks, such every bit recruitment and taxation.[8]

Interpretations [edit]

From the early on 20th century, French and British writers helped establish a dichotomy between British indirect rule, exemplified by the Indian princely states and by Lugard's writings on the administration of northern Nigeria, and French colonial direct dominion. As with British theorists, French colonial officials like Félix Eboué or Robert Delavignette[ix] wrote and argued throughout the first one-half of the 20th century for a distinct French manner of dominion that was centralized, uniform, and aimed at assimilating colonial subjects into the French polity.[10] [xi] [12] French rule, sometimes labeled Jacobin, was said in these writings to be based on the twin ideologies of the centralized unitary French government of the Metropole, with the French colonial ideology of Assimilation. Colonial Assimilation argued that French law and citizenship was based on universal values that came from the French Revolution. Mirroring French domestic citizenship law, French colonial law allowed for anyone who could prove themselves culturally French (the "Évolués") to become equal French citizens.[13] [xiv] [xv] [xvi] [17] In French West Africa, only parts of the Senegalese "Iv Communes" ever extended French citizenship outside a few educated African elite.[eighteen] [19]

While making more subtle distinctions, this model of direct versus indirect dominion was ascendant in academia from the 1930s[20] until the 1970s.[21] [22] [23]

Academics since the 1970s take problematised the Directly versus Indirect Rule dichotomy,[24] arguing the systems were in practice intermingled in both British and French colonial governance, and that the perception of indirect rule was sometimes promoted to justify quite straight rule structures.[25] [26]

Mahmood Mamdani and other academics[27] [28] accept discussed extensively how both direct and indirect dominion were attempts to implement identical goals of foreign rule, merely how the "indirect" strategy helped to create indigenous tensions inside ruled societies which persist in hostile communal relations and dysfunctional strategies of government.[29] [xxx] Mamdani himself famously described indirect dominion as "decentralised despotism".[31]

Some political scientists take fifty-fifty expanded the fence on how direct versus indirect rule experiences continue to affect contemporary governance into how governments which take never experienced being under colonial rule office.[32]

See as well [edit]

  • Bussa revolt - a 1915 uprising confronting indirect dominion in Northern Nigeria
  • Direct colonial dominion
  • Touch of Western European colonialism and colonisation
  • Neocolonialism

References [edit]

  1. ^ The American Historical Association. "ENGLAND'Southward INDIRECT RULE IN ITS AFRICAN COLONIES" in THROUGH THE LENS OF HISTORY: BIAFRA, NIGERIA, THE WEST AND THE World. AHA education guide, historians.org, n.d. Accessed 2012-09-20 http://world wide web.historians.org/tl/lessonplans/nc/trask/indirect.htm
  2. ^ Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (1999) p 529
  3. ^ Lakshmi Iyer, "Direct versus indirect colonial rule in India: Long-term consequences." The Review of Economics and Statistics (2010) 92#4 pp: 693-713 online Archived 2014-09-03 at the Wayback Machine.
  4. ^ Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: indirect rule in southeastern Nigeria, 1891-1929 (London: Longman, 1972)
  5. ^ Dr. Ofosu-Mensah Ababio Ofosu-Mensah E.A. Gold Mining in Adanse: pre-colonial and mod. Sarbrucken: Lambert Bookish Publishing, 2014
  6. ^ Liebenow, J. Gus (1956). "Responses to Planned Political Change in a Tanganyika Tribal Group". American Political Scientific discipline Review. 50 (two): 447–448. doi:10.2307/1951678. ISSN 0003-0554.
  7. ^ Eric J. Hobsbawm, Terence O. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition' (1983)
  8. ^ Collins and Burns, pp. 297-308
  9. ^ Robert Louis Delavignette. Freedom and Say-so in French West Africa. originally published every bit Les vrais chefs de 50'empire: 1939. Oxford Academy: 1946.
  10. ^ Georges Hardy, Histoire sociale de la colonisation française. (Paris, 1953)
  11. ^ Raymond F. Betts, Assimilation and Clan in French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (New York, 1961)
  12. ^ Martin D. Lewis, "1 Hundred Million Frenchmen: The Assimilationist Theory in French Colonial Policy," Comparative Studies in Society and History 4 (Jan 1962), 129-153.
  13. ^ Erik Bleich, 'The legacies of history? Colonization and immigrant integration in Britain and France. Theory and Gild, Volume 34, Number ii, April 2005.
  14. ^ Michael Crowder' in Senegal: A Study in French Absorption Policy (London: Oxford University Printing, 1962)
  15. ^ Mamadou Diouf, 'The French Colonial Policy of Assimilation and the Civility of the Originaires of the Iv Communes (Senegal): A Nineteenth Century Globalization Project' in Development and Modify, Book 29, Number 4, October 1998, pp. 671–696(26)
  16. ^ M. G. Knight, 'French Colonial Policy—the Decline of "Association"' in The Journal of Modernistic History, Vol. 5, No. ii (Jun., 1933), pp. 208–224
  17. ^ Michael Lambert, 'From Citizenship to Negritude: Making a difference in elite ideologies of colonized Francophone West Africa' in Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, No. 2. (Apr., 1993), pp. 239–262
  18. ^ G. Wesley Johnson, Jr., The Emergence of Black Politics in Senegal: The Struggle for Power in the Iv Communes, 1900–1920 (1972)
  19. ^ James F. Searing, 'Senegal: Colonial Period: Four Communes: Dakar, Saint-Louis, Gorée, and Rufisque', in Kevin Shillington (editor), Encyclopedia of African History (New York, 2005): iii Volumes, 3, 1334–35
  20. ^ Ralph J. Bunche, 'French and British Imperialism in West Africa' in The Periodical of Negro History, Vol. 21, No. 1. (Jan., 1936), pp. 31–46
  21. ^ Michael Crowder, 'Indirect Rule: French and British Style' in Africa: Periodical of the International African Institute, Vol. 34, No. three. (Jul., 1964), pp. 197–205
  22. ^ Alec G. Hargreaves, ed. Retentiveness, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2005; ISBN 9780739108215)
  23. ^ Ann Laura Stoler (1989), 'Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule' in Comparative Studies in Order and History, 31, pp 134-161 doi:x.1017/S0010417500015693
  24. ^ Jonathan Derrick, 'The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa' in African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326. (Jan., 1983), pp. 61–74.
  25. ^ Emily Lynn Osborn (2003). 'Circumvolve OF IRON': AFRICAN COLONIAL EMPLOYEES AND THE INTERPRETATION OF COLONIAL RULE IN FRENCH Due west AFRICA. The Periodical of African History, 44, pp 29-l doi:ten.1017/S0021853702008307
  26. ^ Anthony I. Nwabughuogu. The Role of Propaganda in the Development of Indirect Rule in Nigeria, 1890-1929. The International Journal of African Historical Studies Vol. 14, No. one (1981), pp. 65-92
  27. ^ Paul Rich. The Origins of Apartheid Credo: The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Administration, c.1902-1932. African Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 315. (Apr., 1980), pp. 171–194.
  28. ^ Lakshmi Iyer (2010). Direct versus Indirect Colonial Rule in India: Long-Term Consequences. The Review of Economics and Statistics. November 2010, Vol. 92, No. four, Pages 693-713
  29. ^ Mahmood Mamdani. Indirect Rule, Ceremonious Lodge, and Ethnicity: The African Dilemma. Social Justice Vol. 23, No. i/ii (63-64), The Earth Today (Bound-Summer 1996), pp. 145-150
  30. ^ Mahmood Mamdani. Historicizing power and responses to ability: indirect dominion and its reform. Social Research Vol. 66, No. 3, PROSPECTS FOR DEMOCRACY (Fall 1999), pp. 859-886
  31. ^ Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (1996), p. 37.
  32. ^ John Gerring, Daniel Ziblatt, Johan Van Gorp and Julián Arévalo (2011). An Institutional Theory of Straight and Indirect Rule. Globe Politics, 63, pp 377-433 doi:10.1017/S0043887111000104

Sources and references [edit]

  • Michael Crowder. Indirect Rule: French and British Style. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Jul., 1964), pp. 197–205.
  • Paul Rich . The Origins of Apartheid Ideology: The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Assistants, c.1902-1932. African Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 315. (Apr., 1980), pp. 171–194.
  • Omipidan Teslim

Indirect Dominion in Nigeria OldNaija

  • H. F. Morris . A History of the Adoption of Codes of Criminal Law and Procedure in British Colonial Africa, 1876–1935. Journal of African Law, Vol. xviii, No. 1, Criminal Constabulary and Criminology. (Spring, 1974), pp. 6–23.
  • Jonathan Derrick. The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa. African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326. (Jan., 1983), pp. 61–74.
  • Diana Wylie. Confrontation over Kenya: The Colonial Function and Its Critics 1918–1940. The Journal of African History, Vol. xviii, No. three. (1977), pp. 427–447.
  • P. A. Brunt . Empires: Reflections on British and Roman Imperialism. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. vii, No. 3. (Apr., 1965), pp. 267–288.
  • R. O. Collins and J. 1000. Burns. A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, Cambridge, 2007.
  • Harrington, Jack (2010), Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British Republic of india, Chs. 4 & v., New York: Palgrave Macmillan., ISBN978-0-230-10885-1

Period writings [edit]

  • Harold Nicolson. The Colonial Problem. International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 1. (Jan. - February., 1938), pp. 32–fifty.
  • W. E. Rappard . The Practical Working of the Mandates System. Journal of the British Constitute of International Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 5. (Sep., 1925), pp. 205–226.
  • Jan Smuts. Native Policy in Africa. Journal of the Regal African Society, Vol. 29, No. 115. (April., 1930), pp. 248–268.
  • Ralph J. Bunche . French and British Imperialism in West Africa. The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 21, No. 1. (Jan., 1936), pp. 31–46.

External links [edit]

goodaletionce.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_rule

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